|
|
|
[1]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b.
[2]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, pp. 96-97.
[3]. Blumenschine 1992, p. 56; Megarry 1995, p. 199.
[4]. Walker 1996, pp. 155; Sillen 1992, pp. 512-513.
[5]. Sillen 1992; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 71.
[6]. Rensberger 1979; Walker 1996, p. 155.
[7]. Rowley-Conwy 1993a, pp. 60-61. Also see Megarry 1995, pp. 226-265, for extensive discussion.
[8]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988a; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 69; Andrews and Martin 1992, p. 41; Foley 1995, p. 59.
[9]. Andrews and Martin 1992, p. 41; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 70.
[10]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 70; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988a.
[11]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 284 (chart); Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 20; Groves 1993, pp. 42-43.
[12]. Groves 1993, pp. 42-43; Foley 1995, pp. 58, 70.
[13]. Foley 1995, pp. 62-66; Thiessen 1996, p. 76.
[14]. See for example, Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 70; Foley 1995, p. 98.
[15]. Foley 1995, pp. 70, 77, 83.
[16]. Foley 1995, p. 71.
[17]. Megarry 1995, pp. 169-172.
[18]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 57.
[19]. Megarry 1995, pp. 176-177.
[20]. Walker 1996, pp. 147-149, 155; Sillen 1992, pp. 512-513.
[21]. Megarry 1995, p. 232.
[22]. Megarry 1995, p. 199; Blumenschine 1992, pp. 51-52; Rowley-Conwy 1993a, pp. 60-61.
[23]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 62.
[24]. See Rowley-Conwy 1993a, pp. 60-61, for overview of the debate.
[25]. Megarry 1995, p. 200.
[26]. Walker 1996, p. 155.
[27]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 62; Foley 1995, pp. 88-92.
[28]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 63.
[29]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 63.
[30]. Burenhult 1993c, pp. 62-63.
[31]. Scarre 1993, p. 38.
[32]. Foley 1995, p. 88; Thiessen 1996, p. 100.
[33]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 67; Scarre 1993, pp. 42-43, 48.
[34]. Foley 1995, pp. 88, 124; Groves 1993, p. 49.
[35]. Berglund and Björck 1993, pp. 82-83; Burenhult 1993d, p. 84.
[36]. Scarre 1993, p. 41. Burenhult 1993d, pp. 80-81; Berglund and Björck 1993, pp. 82-83.
[37]. Davidson and Noble 1993, p. 46.
[38]. Goudsblom 1992, p. 1.
[39]. Scarre 1993, p. 38; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 71.
[40]. Burenhult 1993c, p. 64.
[41]. Scarre 1993, p. 54.
[42]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 284; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 71; Scarre 1993, p. 56.
[43]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 96.
[44]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, pp. 2, 21, 40; Burenhult 1993d, p. 85; Scarre 1993, pp. 47, 52-53, 55.
[45]. Eaton 1992, p. 817; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 75.
[46]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 284; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 71.
[47]. Berglund and Björck 1993, p. 82.
[48]. Scarre 1993, p. 50.
[49]. Scarre 1993, pp. 40, 50-51.
[50]. Liljegren 1993, p. 86; Burenhult 1993d, pp. 84-85.
[51]. Scarre 1993, pp. 54, 56.
[52]. Scarre 1993, p. 50.
[53]. Scarre 1993, p. 54.
[54]. Burenhult 1993d, p. 81; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 73; Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112.
[55]. Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112.
[56]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 71; Palmqvist 1993, pp. 18-20, 24; Burenhult 1993d, p. 81; Scarre 1993, pp. 56, 61; Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112.
[57]. Goudsblom 1992, pp. 30-33, 44-47.
[58]. Coursey 1975, p. 204.
[59]. Coursey 1975, p. 203.
[60]. Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112; Burenhult 1993d, pp. 92-93.
[61]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 25.
[62]. Scarre 1993, pp. 61, 64.
[63]. Palmqvist 1993, pp. 18-20, 24; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 25.
[64]. Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112; Scarre 1993, pp. 66, 74.
[65]. Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 25.
[66]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 286; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, pp. 73, 80; Eaton et al 1996, p. 1733.
[67]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 284; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988b, p. 72.
[68]. Ulijaszek 1992, p. 112.
[71]. Bidwell 1990, p. 108.
[73]. See Megarry 1995, p. 233; Stanford 1995, p. 50; Tutin 1992; Wrangham 1992; see also McGrew 1992 for comprehensive overview of major chimp studies in the last two or three decades.
[74]. Thiessen 1996, p. 76; Kopytoff 1995.
[75]. See for instance McGrew 1992, p. 154 (chart); Goodall 1986, p. 233 (chart).
[76]. McGrew 1992, p. 117.
[77]. Kopytoff 1995; Rensberger 1979.
[78]. This is the best estimate I have been able to come up with based on looking at a range of sources. For discussion of the considerable difficulties involved in making exact estimates of relative amounts of foodstuffs making up chimpanzee diet, see McGrew 1992, pp. 150-154; Tutin 1992; Wrangham 1992.
[79]. See Kopytoff 1995, for example.
[80]. Tutin 1992, pp. 20-21; McGrew 1992, pp. 153-154.
[81]. McGrew 1992, p. 154.
[82]. McGrew 1992, p. 209.
[83]. McGrew 1992, p. 154; Goodall 1986, p. 248. While termites are not present at all chimp research sites in Africa, W.C. McGrew, one of the journeyman researchers in the field, summarizes the situation by saying, "Apart from Tai [one of the African study sites], no study which has produced extensive behavioral or fecal data on chimpanzees' eating habits has failed to record [termites] as a staple food, if the termites were there to be exploited." (McGrew 1992, pp. 158-159) Note that Goodall 1986, p. 249, footnote (a), states differently, citing two studies at the time of her publication at which chimps did not eat available termites. Since six additional years had elapsed between the time of Goodall's publication and McGrew's, and a 1979 study cite of McGrew's was one cited by Goodall as being that of non-termite-eating chimps, one would assume McGrew's later publication had access to more recent data superseding Goodall's. In any event, all later studies seem to agree that insects of some kind form a regular part of the diet of almost all chimp populations studied with perhaps one lone exception (see Wrangham 1992, p. 14).
[84]. Tutin 1992, p. 21, (chart).
[85]. Goodall 1986, p. 233 (chart).
[86]. Goodall 1986, pp. 232, 262.
[87]. McGrew 1992, p. 145.
[88]. Goodall 1986, pp. 246, 256.
[89]. Goodall 1986, p. 246.
[90]. Goodall 1986, p. 232.
[91]. Groves 1993, pp. 42-43.
[92]. See Dinshah 1976-77, for interesting discussion.
[93]. Tutin 1992, p. 19; McGrew 1992, pp. 43, 53.
[94]. Tutin 1992, p. 23.
[95]. Tutin 1992, p. 23.
[96]. Wrangham 1992, p. 18; Goodall 1986, p. 238.
[97]. Goodall 1986, pp. 237-238.
[98]. Goodall 1986, pp. 239-240.
[99]. McGrew 1992, p. 44 (chart), 54 and following.
[100]. James 1989, p. 1; Goudsblom 1992, p. 17; Davidson and Noble 1993, p. 46; Megarry 1995, p. 228.
[101]. Stahl 1984, p. 151, footnote 2; James 1989.
[102]. James 1989; Benditt 1989, p. 21-22.
[103]. Benditt 1989, p. 22; Megarry 1995, pp. 245, 247.
[104]. Megarry 1995, pp. 246-247.
[105]. Wu and Lin 1983, p. 93; Megarry 1995, p. 241-244.
[106]. Rowley-Conwy 1993b, p. 65.
[107]. Patel 1995, p. 5.
[108]. Davidson and Noble 1993, p. 46. The skeptical James (1989), p. 5, says that by Middle Stone-Age times (circa 35,000 to 128,000 years ago or earlier), "presence of fire is well established" in Africa. In response, Dennett, p. 11, agrees, saying there is "little evidence for its controlled and systematic use until late in the Middle Pleistocene." (The late boundary of the Middle Pleistocene is 128,000 years ago as defined by James.) Two other circumstantial reasons for believing that fire use only became widespread around this time are that the last Ice Age began at 115,000 years ago when temperatures plunged worldwide, and this is also the rough time period (110,000-140,000 years ago) during which anatomically modern humans evolved (Foley 1995, pp. 88, 124; Groves 1993, p. 49), who ultimately used fire more intensively than any previous hominid.
[109]. See, for example, the excellent overview by Lewin 1993a, pp. 89-113.
[110]. Goudsblom 1992, p. 12.
[111]. Goudsblom 1992, p. 15.
[112]. Goudsblom 1992, p. 15.
[113]. Eldredge 1995, pp. 99-100.
[114]. Eldredge 1995, p. 99.
[115]. For the basic equation, see Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 12.
[117]. Simoons 1988, p. 87.
[118]. Simoons 1988, p. 86.
[119]. Simoons 1988, pp. 88-89.
[120]. Simoons 1988, p. 83.
[121]. Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 13.
[126]. Lutz 1995, see charts on pages 116 and 117.
[127]. Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 13.
[128]. Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 13.
[130]. Hoggan, in press 1996/1997.
[131]. Coursey 1975, p. 204.
[132]. Stahl 1984; Ames 1987, p. 274; response by Ames in Davis (1987), p. 1634.
[133]. "Thousands" of nature's pesticides occur in foods naturally, according to Ames 1987, p. 272.
[134]. Ames 1987, p. 272. An unconfirmed journalistic report in Health magazine (1996) puts the figure at 59.
[135]. Response by Ames in Davis 1987, pp. 1634.
[137]. Ames 1987; response by Ames in Davis 1987, pp. 1634.
[138]. Stahl 1984, p. 152.
[139]. O'Dea 1992, p. 80.
[140]. O'Dea 1992, p. 77.
[141]. O'Dea 1992, p. 78.
[142]. O'Dea 1992, p. 77.
[143]. O'Dea 1992, p. 80.
[144]. Gray et al 1992, p. 9.
[145]. Blood cholesterol readings are from Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988a, p. 745. Percentages of animal food in the diet are from Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 285, and Eaton, Shostak, and Konner, 1988b, p. 74.
[146]. Eaton et al 1996, p. 1735.
[147]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 285.
[148]. Eaton et al 1996, p. 1736.
[149]. Eaton 1992, pp. 818-819.
[150]. Hunt et al 1995; Spencer et al 1983; National Research Council 1989, p. 618.
[151]. Mazess and Mather 1974.
[152]. Eaton 1985, p. 285.
[153]. Eaton et al 1996, p. 1736, 1737.
[154]. Eaton et al 1996, p. 1736, 1737.
[155]. Eaton and Nelson 1991, p. 282S.
[156]. Eaton et al 1996, p. 1737.
[158]. Mann et al 1972; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988a, p. 745.
[160]. Hitchcox 1996, p. 161.
[161]. Eaton and Konner 1985, p. 285.
[163]. Ulijaszek 1992; Angel 1984.
[164]. Smith 1988b, pp. 160-161.
[165]. Plowright 1988, pp. 177-179.
[166]. Goodall 1986, pp. 92-97.
[168]. Angel 1984; Eaton, Shostak, and Konner 1988a, p. 740.
Return to beginning of interviews
Back to Frank Talk by Long-Time Insiders